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Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting and female circumcision, is the ritual removal of some or all of the external female genitalia. Typically carried out by a traditional circumciser using a blade, with or without anaesthesia, FGM is concentrated in 27 African countries, Yemen and Iraqi Kurdistan, and found elsewhere in Asia, the Middle East, and among diaspora communities around the world.〔For the circumcisers, blade/razor, anaesthesia, (UNICEF 2013 ), pp. 2, 44–46; for the 29 countries, pp. 26–27.〕 It is conducted from days after birth to puberty and beyond; in half the countries for which national figures are available, most girls are cut before the age of five.〔 The procedures differ according to the ethnic group. They include removal of the clitoral hood and clitoral glans, removal of the inner labia, and in the most severe form (known as infibulation) removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva. In this last procedure, a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual fluid; the vagina is opened for intercourse and opened further for childbirth. Health effects depend on the procedure, but can include recurrent infections, chronic pain, cysts, an inability to get pregnant, complications during childbirth, and fatal bleeding.〔Jasmine Abdulcadira, et al, ("Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting" ), ''Swiss Medical Weekly'', 6(14), January 2011. PMID 21213149〕 There are no known health benefits.〔("Female genital mutilation" ), New York: World Health Organization, February 2014.〕 The practice is rooted in gender inequality, attempts to control women's sexuality, and ideas about purity, modesty and aesthetics. It is usually initiated and carried out by women, who see it as a source of honour and fear that failing to have their daughters and granddaughters cut will expose the girls to social exclusion. Over 130 million women and girls have experienced FGM in the 29 countries in which it is concentrated.〔 The United Nations Population Fund estimates that 20 percent of affected women have been infibulated, a practice found largely in northeast Africa, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia and northern Sudan.〔〔 FGM has been outlawed or restricted in most of the countries in which it occurs, but the laws are poorly enforced.〔For countries in which it is outlawed or restricted, (UNICEF 2013 ), p. 8; for enforcement, (UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 ), p. 48.〕 There have been international efforts since the 1970s to persuade practitioners to abandon it, and in 2012 the United Nations General Assembly, recognizing FGM as a human-rights violation, voted unanimously to intensify those efforts.〔 The opposition is not without its critics, particularly among anthropologists. Eric Silverman writes that FGM has become one of anthropology's central moral topics, raising difficult questions about cultural relativism, tolerance and the universality of human rights.〔Eric K. Silverman, ("Anthropology and Circumcision" ), ''Annual Review of Anthropology'', 33, 2004 (pp. 419–445), pp. 420, 427.〕 ==Terminology== 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「female genital mutilation」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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